Saturday, February 25, 2023

Active and Passive Voice

Active and Passive Voice

Active Voice :When the subject of the sentence is the doer of the action.

Passive Voice :When the subject of the sentence is the receiver of the action.

Active VoicePassive Voice
1.Sheena cleans the floor everyday.The floor is cleaned by Sheena everyday.
2.The boy is rowing the boat.The boat is being rowed by the boy.

Always use 3rd form of the verb in passive.

Changes from active to passive voice
  • The subject in the active voice becomes the object in the passive voice.
  • The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice.
  • The meaning of the sentence does not change when the voice is changed.
  • The time of action also does not change.
  • The preposition by is used in the passive voice to give complete sense to the sentence.
TenseActive verb formsPassive Verb forms
Simple Presenttake/takesis/am/are + taken
Simple Pasttookwas/were + taken
Simple futurewill/shall takewill/shall + be + taken
Present continuousis/am/are + takingis/am/are + being + taken
Past continuouswas/were + takingwas/were + being + taken
Present perfecthas/have + takenhas/have + been + taken
Now read these examples :
Active VoicePassive Voice
1.We keep our classroom tidy.Our classroom is kept tidy by us.
2.He is making a card.A card is being made by him.
3.I ate the cake.The cake was eaten by me.
4.She will arrange all the books.All the books will be arranged by her.
5.They will sing a hymm.A hymm will be sung by them.
6.Robbers looted the bank yesterday.The bank was looted yesterday (by robbers).
  • We use passive voice when the doer of the action is unknown.
    For example :
    • The wooden box was thrown into the river.
  • We also use the passive voice when we do not want to mention the doer of the action.
    For example :
    • The lamp was broken.
    • The flag was hoisted.
Changing the voice of special sentences
  • When we change a command to passive voice, we use let in the passive voice.
    For example :
    • Shut the door. (active)
    • Let the door be shut. (passive)
  • When in the active voice a preposition follows the verb (break into, look after), the preposition comes immediately after the verb in the passive voice.
    For example :
    • Someone broke into the pet shop. (active)
    • The pet shop was broken into. (passive)

Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct
When we report the same words spoken by a speaker, that is said to be in Direct speech.
Indirect
When we report the speaker's words by changing according to present condition, that is said to be in Indirect speech.
Example:
  • "The cat is well." said the vet.(direct speech)
    The vet told me that the cat was well.(Indirect speech)

It is important to note that direct speech is always placed within inverted commas (" "). This punctuation mark is called quotation marks or speech marks.

Reporting Verbs

Read these sentences:

Direct speech: "The story is interesting." said Mira.
Indirect speech:Mira said that the story was interesting.
Direct speech: "The story is interesting." said Mira to David.
Indirect speech: Mira told David that the story was interesting.
In reported speech or indirect speech, when we mwntion the person or persons to whom the words are spoken, we use the reporting verbs said or told.

Direct to Indirect Speech

Change of tense

When changing from direct speech to indirect speech, we usually change the verb in the direct speech from the present tense to the past tense, unless the sentence expresses something that happens everyday or is a universal truth.

Look at these examples:
Direct SpeechIndirect Speech
"I am bandaging the dog's paw." said the vet.The vet said that he was bandaging the dog's paw.
"I took my cat to the vet." said the girl.The girl said that she had taken her cat to the vet.
"I have a nasty cold." said my grandmother.My grandmother said that she had a nasty cold.
"I look after animals." says the vet.The vet says that he looks after animals. (Tense does not change as the vet talks about an everyday action.)
"Mt Everest is the highest peak in the world." said our teacher.Our teacher said that Mt Everest is the highest peak in the world. (Tense does not change as the teacher says a universal truth.)
Look at this chart to understand the changes of tenses :
Direct SpeechIndirect Speech
FromSimple present tensetoSimple past tense
FromSimple past tensetoPast Perfect
FromPast perfecttoNo change
FromPresent continuoustoPast continuous
FromPresent perfecttoPast perfect

Direct to Indirect Speech

Change of pronouns and possessive adjectives

Pronouns and possessive adjectives also change when we change a sentence from direct to reported speech or indirect speech. They change according to the person and gender of the speaker and the listener.

Look at these sentences :
  • "You are doing your work well." said the teacher to me.
    The teacher told me that I was doing my work well.
  • "Lend me your book." said Peter to Ria.
    Peter told Ria to lend him her book.
  • "Your cake is ready." said the baker to Mrs. Brown.
    The baker told Mrs. Brown that her cake was ready.
Grab the points
  • Pronouns and possessive adjectives of the first person are changed into the pronouns and possessive adjectives of the same person and gender as that of the subject of the reporting verb.
  • Pronouns and possessive adjectives of the second person are changed into the pronouns and possessive adjectives of the same person and gender as that of the object of the reporting verb.

Direct to Indirect Speech

Change in time and space

Words expressing nearness in time and space in direct speech are generally changed to words expressing distance, as in these sentences in indirect speech.

  • "The teacher gave me this book today." said Rajat.
    Rajat said that the teacher had given him that book that day.
Direct SpeechIndirect Speech
nowthen
herethere
todaythat day
thisthat
thesethose
yesterdaythe day before/the previous day
tomorrowthe day after/the following day
just nowjust then

Punctuation

Punctuation

Punctuation is the use of different marks and capital letters in writing to make the meaning of the sentence clear.

Read the description of punctuation marks :

, (Comma)
I separate items on a list,separate parts of a sentence, and indicate a pause in a sentence.

! (Exclamation Mark)
I am used after something is said with force, after a strong command,or after strong feeling are expressed.

? (Question Mark)
I mark the end of a direct question and come at the end of a question tag.

. (Full Stop)
I follow initials,abbreviations and mark the end of a sentence.

' (Apostrophe)
I show ownership and missing letters in contractions.

"..." (Inverted Commas)
We are put around what is said directly.

Punctuate means to pause.

Sentences : Simple, Compound and Complex

Sentences : Simple, Compound and Complex

Sentences are of three kinds on the basis of clauses.

    Sentences
  • Simple
  • Compound
  • Complex

Before learning the sentences, we must know what the independent clauses and dependent clauses are.

I am hungry.
when I eat leaves
I grow fast
after that I turn into a butterfly
that comes out of a cocoon

The clauses that are bold can stand on their own. They do not depend on other clauses to make complete sense.
They are main clauses. They are also called independent clauses.

The clauses that are underlined cannot stand on their own. They depend on other clauses to complete their meanings.
They are subordinate clauses. they are also called dependent clauses.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence contains only one main clause and no other clause.

Example,
  • Jai ate his lunch.
  • This is an interesting book.
  • A sentence that has only one subject and one predicate is called a simple sentence.
  • A simple sentence must contain a finite verb.

Compound Sentence

A sentence that contains two or more main clauses is called a compound sentence. These clauses are connected with conjunction.

For Example,
  • Sonia likes to eat fruits, but she does not like apples.

This sentence has more than one subject and predicate. Therefore, it is not a simple sentence.
This sentence has two clauses - Sonia likes to eat fruits and she does not like apples.
Both of them are main clauses since they are complete in meaning and can stand on their own. These two clauses are joined by the conjunction but to form a longer sentence.
So this sentence is a compound sentence.
Conjunctions that join two or more main clauses are called coordinating conjunctions. The conjunctions and, but, or, yet, for and so are some common coordinating conjunctions.

The conjunctions of compound sentences differ from that of complex sentences.

Complex Sentence

A sentence that has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses is called a complex sentence.

For Example,
  • She must go to bed when the lights are out.

This sentence also contains two clauses.
The first clause is - She must go to bed. This clause can stand on its own. It is a main clause.
The second clause is - when the lights are out. This clause cannot stand on its own. It needs the first clause to complete its meaning. It is subordinate clause.
Since this sentence contains a main clause and a subordinate clause, it is a complex sentence.

  • The subordinate clause is joined to the main clause using conjunctions such as because, since, after, although, as soon as and when.
  • Subordinate clauses are also joined to the main clause with the help of relative pronouns such as that, who, or which.

Sentences : Phrases and Clauses

Sentences : Phrases and Clauses

Phrase

Sometimes a group of two or more words make sense but may not convey complete meaning.

For example :
  • in the bag
  • at seven o'clock
  • purple and green

Look at these examples :

  • the tall boy (verb is missing)
  • ran fast (subject is missing)
  • around the track (subject and verb are missing)

In the phrase, either the subject, the verb, or both are missing.

Clause

A clause is a group of words that has both a subject and a predicate. It may form a sentence or be a part of a sentence.

For example :
  • He ran fast yet he could not catch the train.

In the above sentence two clauses are there. First is He ran fast, this clause has its own subject 'he' and verb 'ran'. The second clause has a subject 'he' and its verb 'could not catch'. It is not possible that all the clauses make complete sense.'he ran fast,' shows complete sense but 'yet he could not catch the train' does not show a complete sense. The second clause is a dependent clause.

Thus we can say that 'He ran fast' is a complete sentence as well as a clause but 'yet he could not catch the train, is only a clause not a sentence because it does not express complete sense and is dependent upon the first clause.

Types of Clauses

There are two types of clauses.

Independent or Main clause

An independent or main clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence.

For example :
  • We played football yesterday.

Dependent or Subordinate clause

A dependent or subordinate clause expresses a partial thought and cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.

For example :
  • Because it was a holiday.

Here, the clause expresses a thought, but it needs a main clause to complete the meaning.

Dependent clause does not express a complete thought.

  • A dependent clause is usually combined with an independent clause to form a sentence.
    For example :
    • We played football yesterday because it was a holiday.

  • Two independent clauses can also be combined with a conjunction to form a sentence.
    For example :
    • I played football and my brother read a book.

Sentences

Sentences

When a group of words is arranged in a proper order and gives complete meaning, this is called a sentence.

Parts of a sentence

Sentence=Subject+Predicate
The earth's land was once made-
up of a single continent.
=The earth's land+was once made-up of a single continent

Subject :The part of sentence which names a person or a thing is called the subject.

Predicate : The part of the sentence that tells us about the subject is called the predicate.

  • Subject mat be of one word or more than one word.
  • Predicate must start with a verb.

Types of sentences

In your previous classes, you have learned the different types of sentences. Let's revise them.

  • An assertive or declarative sentence is a statement that provides some information.
    • We walk to nearby places instead of taking the car.
    • They did not understand what the teacher explained.

  • An interrogative sentence is used to ask questions.
    For example :
    • Does his younger brother learn music?
    • What do you want for your Diwali present?

  • An imperative sentence is used either to give commands or make requests.
    For example :
    • Don't waste food.
    • Please tell me a story.
    Now read these sentences
    • Go to sleep.
    • Please form a queue.

    Note that these are imperative sentences. The subject You is understood in these sentences.

    • (You) go to sleep.
    • (You) please form a queue.

    Subject (you) is hidden in imperative sentence.


  • An exclamatory sentence shows a strong emotion or feeling.
    For example :
    • Such a beautiful viw it was!
    • Bravo! You have hit the ball.

Articles

Articles

The words a, an and the are called articles.

    Articles
  • Indefinite Articles (a, an)
  • Definite Article (The)

Indefinite Articles

We use indefinite articles a or an when it is not clearly defined or stated a person or a thing spoken of, e.g., a teacher, means here any teacher.

Definite Article

We use definite article the when it points out some particular, some special person or thing spoken of, e.g., the teacher, means here some particular teacher.

  • A is used before the noun in the singular countable number beginning with consonant sound.
  • An is used before the noun in the singular countable number beginning with vowel sound.
  • The is used with both singular or plural nouns that must be in particular form.
  1. The indefinite articles, are used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. These are a and an.
    For example:
    • I would like to have dinner at a restaurant. (any restaurant, not a specific one)

  2. The definite article, is used to refer to specific or particular nouns. This is the article the.
    For example:
    • I ate at the best restaurant in town. (There are many restaurants in town, but I ate at the best one.)
  • We use a and an before singular nouns. The can be used for both singular and plural nouns.
    For example:
    • Radha planted an orchid in her backyard. (one plant)
    • I have exactly the same watch you are wearing. (one watch)
    • How did you make the cookies you sent me? (many cookies)

  • We use a with words beginning with consonant sounds. We use an with words beginning with vowel sounds.
    For example:
    • a university (Although u is a vowel, it has the sound of the consonant y.)
    • an hour (Although h is a consonant, it is silent and the word begins with the vowel sound aa.)

  • With uncountable nouns, the can be used.
    For example:
    • He spilled the soup all over the floor.

  • Sometimes, the can be omitted, as in this sentence.
    For example:
    • He spilled soup all over the floor. (Here, we don't have to specify which soup.)

  • We also use the when we have already mentioned the nouns before.
    For example:
    • She has got two children, a boy and a girl. The girl's four, and the boy's six years old.

  • We use the article the before -
    • ordinal numbers - the second, the last
    • superlative degree of comparison - the worst, the shortest
    • names of unique things - the earth, the sun, the sky
    • names of nationalities, races and communities - the Australians, the Sri Lankans
    • names of countries that indicate that the countries are made-up of many parts- the United States, the Netherlands
    • names of mountain ranges and deserts - the Alps, the Thar Desert
    • names of rivers, seas and oceans - the Arctic Ocean, the Brahmaputra
    • names of important buildings - the Qutub Minar, the Taj Mahal
    • names of newspapers and holy books - the Hindustan Times, the Quran

Omission of Articles

    We do not use an article with the names of,
  1. people or places, except when the country is a collection of states.
    For example:
    • Peter, Pakistan, the United Kingdom

  2. islands, except in the case of a group of islands.
    For example:
    • Greenland, the Andaman Islands

  3. lakes, except in the case of a group of lakes.
    For example:
    • Pichola, the Great Lakes

  4. mountains, except in the case of mountain ranges.
    For example:
    • Mt. Everest, the Himalayas
  • We do not use an article when we are speaking about meals, places and transport.
    For example:
    • He has breakfast at home.
    • I go to college.
    • Maggle goes to work by taxi.

  • We also do not use an article when we are speaking about things in general, substances, languages, sports and academic subjects.
    For example:
    • Sugar is sweet.
    • I enjoy playing football.
    • Father loves Geography.

Determiners

Determiners

Determiners are words that introduce nouns and specify them.

There are several different types of determiners in the English language. The articles a, an and the also specify nouns. Therefore, they are determiners. Let us look at some adjectives that function as determiners.

This, that, these and those

  • We use this and that with singular nouns.
    For example :
    • this pen
    • that boy
  • We use these and those with plural nouns.
    For example :
    • these apples
    • those stars
  • This and these refer to things near in terms of place and time.
    For example :
    • this pen (here)
    • these tables (here)
  • That and those refer to things further away in terms of place and time.
    For example :
    • that shop (there)
    • those days (then)

Some

  • Some is used with uncountable as well as countable nouns.
    For example :
    • I want some butter.
    • Some boys were at the door.
  • Some is usually used in questions when we expect the answer to be yes.
    For example :
    • Do you have some paper?
    • Can I have some lemonade, please?
    • Would you like to have some tea?

Any

  • Any is usually used in questions when we expect the answer to be no.
    For example :
    • Do you have any paper?
    • Is there any food in the fridge?
    • Do you have any fresh vegetables?
  • Any is generally used in negative sentences.
    For example :
    • I don't have any clothes to wear.
    • I don't have any money to buy the uniform.
    • She doesn't have any books to read.

Few/a few and little/a little

A few and a little refer to small quantities.

  • A few goes before the plural number of nouns, while a little goes before uncountable nouns.
    For example :
    • I bought a few toys for the children.
    • I had a little money in the bank.
  • Few and little without a have a negative meaning. They mean hardly any.
    For example :
    • There was little traffic on the roads this Sunday.
    • There are few cars on the road.

Much and many

Much and many signify large quantities.

  • Many goes before a plural noun.
    For example :
    • There are many books on this shelf.
    • Grandma tells us many stories of her childhood.
  • Much goes before an uncountable noun.
    For example :
    • There isn't much milk left.
    • Zoya has too much work today.

Each other is used for two. One another is used for more then two.

Tenses

Tenses

Tenses express time when an action is done.

Read this table to know the uses of different tenses
TensesUsesExamples
Simple Presentfor everyday events, habits and facts (V1 (base form) of the verb)
  • I paint whenever I get time.
Present Continuousaction that is taking place now (is/am/are + V1 - ing)
  • Someone is knocking at the door.
Present Perfect
  • to show an action that has just happened
  • to describe past event whose effect continues in the present
  • to talk or write about actions whose time is not definite
  • to describe an action that has started in the past and still continues (has/have + V3)
  • I have finished my breakfast.
  • Suzie has brought snacks for everyone.
  • Remy has learnt pottery.
  • Mahia has ordered a grilled vegetable sandwich.
Simple Pastfor actions completed in the past (V2)
  • I gave my book to Sam.
Past Continuousto talk about things that were happening at a particular time in the past. (was/were + V1-ing)
  • Shane was sleeping when I reached his house.
Simple Futurefor actions that will happen in the future (will/shall + V1)
  • They will buy tickets for us as well.
Past Perfectfor actions done after another action in past (had + V3)
  • We had reached the party before it started.

Past Perfect Tense

We use the past perfect tense for an action that took place before a certain time or an action in the past.

For example,
  • The train had already left by the time I reached the station.
  • The teacher had not yet begun the lesson when Priya arrived.

When two actions happen in the past, we use the past perfect tense to indicate which action happened first.

For example,
  • We had finished our dinner before the guests arrived.
  • I had completed the sums when the teacher called me.

Will and shall are both used to show the future tense. Will is also used to make a strong statement about an action in the future.

For example,
  • I will do everything possible to help him.

Prepositions

Prepositions

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and some other part of the sentence.

Examples
  • She goes to temple on Sunday.
  • The river flows under the bridge.
  • The letter was written by me with a pen.
  • The meaning of the term 'preposition', means placing before.
  • Thus a preposition is usually put before a noun or a pronoun.
Prepositions show us nouns in relation to the following :
place
  • The boy sat at his desk.
  • The cat lay under the chair.
movement/direction
  • The man walked into the house.
  • The dog chased the cat through the gate bars.
time
  • After school, we play football.
  • We are going for a picnic on Monday.
agency
  • The tree was cut by the woodcutter.
  • He cut the tree with an axe.
manner
  • The soldier does his duty with courage.
  • She won the race with ease.

Preposition following words

It is interesting to see how the meanings change when different prepositions follow the same verb and form phrasal verbs.

Look at these phrasal verbs with break and called and other verbs :
break into (enter without permission)The thief broke into the house.
break away (run away)The dog broke away from my grip.
break down (fail)The bus broke down on the way.
called on (meet)I called on my friend last evening.
called for (ask)The officer called for the report of the enquiry.
draw near (to approach)The police officer was drawing near.
Fall out (to quarrel)Some boys were falling out there.
Give in (to surrender)Indira Gandhi never gave in.


Look at this list of phrasal verbs and their meaning :
PhrasesMeanings
call uptelephone
draw upprepare
keep backhide, conceal
keep upmaintain
keep awayremain absent
draw backretreat
draw nearapproach
give backreturn
give upleave
give awaydistribute

Conjunctions

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are used to express several thoughts together.

    Conjunctions
  • Join Words
  • Join Phrases
  • Join Sentences
  • Conjunctions are also called connectors.
  • These join words,phrases and sentences.
  • Different conjunctions are used to join different ideas.

Let us learn different uses of different conjunctions :

  • And, as well as show addition of two things.
    For example :
    • I like apples and mangoes.
  • But and while show contrast or opposite ideas.
    For example :
    • I like apples, I don't like mangoes.
  • Because, as and since give us a reason.
    For example :
    • I went to the market because I wanted to buy some apples.
  • Until and when show time.
    Look at these examples :
    • Will you wait until I come back?
    • The mangoes ripen when the weather is warm.
  • Though and although mean in spite of. They show a fact that makes another fact look surprising or unusual.
    For example :
    • Though we were tired, we finished the work.
    • Although she tried very hard, she could not get the job.
  • That is used to give a reason, an aim, or s result.
    For example :
    • Tell then that I an waiting.
  • For and since are also used to give reasons, as in these sentences.
    • I made a card for, it was my grandmother's birthday.
    • Since it was grandmother's birthday, I made a card.
  • While means during a period of time. It also shows contrast between two things.
    For example :
    • While he was sleeping, the boy escaped.
    • Ronnie likes pop music while his brother likes classical songs.
  • Or and otherwise indicate choice.
    For example :
    • Which balloon do you want, red or blue?

Words Pairs as Conjunctions (Correlatives)

Some conjunctions are used in pairs such as not only...but also, either...or, both...and, neither...nor, etc.

Read these sentences :
  • She is a dancer. She is a musician.
    Not only she is a dancer but also a musician. (X)
    (She is not only a dancer but also a musician.)(✓)
  • She paints, She cooks. She plays football.
    Not only does she paint and cook but also plays football. (X)
    (Not only does she paint and cook, but she also plays football.) (✓)
  • She is either a manager or a clerk.(✓)
  • She neither attended the birthday party nor did she go to office. (✓)

Parts of Speech

Parts of Speech

When we make a sentence, we use in it nouns, pronouns, adjectives, serbd, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.
These parts of sentences are called parts of speech.

We must have complete knowledge to create the perfect sentences.

Read the poem given below

Every name you call a Noun,
As king and queen, and dress the gown.
The Pronoun in place of noun does stand,
As you and I clap our hands.
The Adjective does a thing describe,
As soft cushion and beautiful life.
The Verb means action, something done,
As sing and dance, and play and run.
The Adverbs show how, where and when
Things are done, as quickly, inside and often.
The Preposition shows its relation to a noun,
As at the station, or in the town.
Conjunctions bring together, in many ways,
Sentences, words or phrase.
As and, but and because.
The Interjection cries out,'Hark!
Don't forget the exclamation mark!'
All these rhymes happily teach
all about the Parts of Speech.

Adjectives

Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe nouns and pronouns.

Adjectives
  • Adjectives of Quality
  • Adjectives of Number
  • Adjectives of Quantity
  • Demonstrative Adjectives
  • Possessive Adjectives
  • Interrogative Adjectives
  • Emphatic Adjectives
  • Adjectives of Quality answer the question - of what kind?
    For example:
    • shiny, green apple

  • Adjectives of Number answer the question - how many?
    They can be categorized as:
    • Cardinal Adjectives- one car, five hundred people
    • Ordinal Adjectives- the first person to climb Mt Everest, five hundred people
    • Indefinite Adjectives- a few books (countable), little water (uncountable)
    • Distributive Adjectives- each boy, every teacher

  • Adjectives of Quantity answer the question - how much?
    For example:
    • some water
    • little honey

  • Demonstrative Adjectives point out nouns
    For example:
    • those fish
    • that kite

  • Possessive Adjectives show belonging and answer the question - whose?
    For example:
    • my fish bowl
    • their house

Difference between Possessive Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives

Read this sentence :
  • The book is Minu's
  • If we want to replace the noun Minu with a possessive pronoun, we will write -
  • The book is hers.

Some simple possessive pronouns are mine, his, hers, ours, theirs, yours.

Some simple possessive adjectives are my, his, her, our, their, your, its.

Interrogative Adjectives

Interrogative adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions.

What, which and whose can be used with nouns to ask questions.

Examples:
  • What time is it?
  • Which book are you reading?

Emphatic Adjectives

Sometimes, we use words like own and very to give our sentences emphasis, as in these sentences.

  • I saw it with my own eyes.
  • I found the very book I wanted.

Verbs

Verbs

Finite Verbs

Finite verbs change according to their subjects, numbers, person, tense.

Set 1.He liked Dancing.He likes dancing.He will like dancing.
Set 2.I like to dance.He likes to dance.They like to dance.

In the first set of sentences, the verb like changes tense.

In the second set, the verb changes to match the subject in number and person (I/he/they). This is because it has a subject (I/he/they). Here, the verb like is a finite verb.

  • A least one finite verb is compulsary in a sentence.
  • Every sentence in English needs a finite verb. It is an essential part of a sentence.
  • An infinitive is a non-finite verb that does the work of a noun in a sentence.
  • An infinitive may be as the subject or object of a finite verb.

Non-finite Verbs

Now look at the verbs dancing and to dance. They do not change in either tense or number. These are called non-finite verbs.

Infinitive doesn't change according to tense or number or person of the subject.

Gerund also doesn't change according to tense or number or person of the subject.

  1. Infinitive (to + V1)
    Read these sentences :
    1. Birds love to sing.
    2. To help others is our duty.

  2. Gerund (V1 + ing)
    Read these sentences :
    1. Reading is a good hobby.
    2. I enjoy cooking.

  3. Participle
    Read these sentences :
    1. The crying baby woke up everyday.
    2. I need some cheese for my toasted bread.
  4. In these sentences, the verbs crying and toasted are formed by adding -ing and -ed to cry and toast respectively. They function as adjectives in these sentences. They cannot stand on their own as the main verb and are also a type of non-finite verbs.

Helping Verbs

Helping Verbs

Helping verbs support the main verbs.

    Helping Verbs
  • 'Be' verb
  • 'Do' verb
  • 'Have' verb
  • Modals

Helping verbs are also called auxiliary verbs.

Modals

You have learnt that words like can, can't, may, might, will, would are used with main verbs to express ability, possibility, certainty, to make requests, or to take permissions. Such words are called modals.

Read these sentences
  • She can speak and write seven languages. (shows ability)
  • May I help you carry this box? (shows offer)
  • Would you pass me the salad, please? (shows request)
  • You should visit a doctor for your cold. (shows advice)
  • You must watch this movie. (shows strong suggestion)

Modals in different forms can make up different types of sentences :

Positive Sentences

  • I might be late for the meeting.
  • You must lie down and take rest.

Negative Sentences

  • I can't remember where I kept my shoes..
  • You should not repeat the same mistake.

Interrogative Sentences

  • Would you join us for the picnic?
  • May I borrow your crayons?

Numbers and person of the subject cannot affect the form of modals.

Question Tags

Read these interrogative sentences :
  • You can click photographs, can't you?
  • Mary will not come with us, will she?
  • Zayn shouldn't stay home alone, should he?

The mini questions can't you?, will she?, should he? at the end of these statements are question tags.

  • A positive statement takes a negative question tag.
    For example:
    • Snow is white,isn't it?
  • A negative statement takes a positive question tag.
    For example:
    • You can't see me,can you?

We add negative tags to positive sentences and positive to go to negative sentences.

Nouns

Nouns

A noun is the name of a person, place, an nimal or a thing.

Kinds of noun
  1. Proper Nouns
  2. Abstract Nouns
  3. Common Nouns
  4. Material Nouns
  5. Collective Nouns

Proper Nouns

Proper nouns are the particular names given to persons, places, animals or things, e.g., Rahul, Mumbai, Sony, Monday, Ganga, Mahatma Gandhi, mr. Mamay, etc.

Common Nouns

Common Nouns are the names given to person, place, animal or thing generally, e.g., pen, house, boy, river, fruit, painter, doctor, ball, etc.

Collective Nouns

Collective Nouns are names of groups or collection of persons, places, animals or things.

Examples :
  • an army of ants
  • a family of otters
  • a band of musicians
  • a flock of sheep
  • Collective means not single
  • People, persons, players, etc, are not collective nouns but they are plural forms.

Abstract Nouns

Abstract Nouns express actions, feelings or qualities.

Examples :
  • Actions, such as laughter, robbery, practice
  • Feelings, such as sadness, joy, pride
  • Qualities, such as bravery, beauty, honesty
  • Abstract Nouns cannot be touched, smelt, heard, seen or tasted
  • These do not have physical form.

Material Nouns

It is the name of a matter or substance of which things are made.

Examples :
  • The ring is made of gold.
  • The table is made of wood.
  • Diamond is very costly.

Kinds of Gender

Masculine Gender : It indicates the male nouns, e.g., boy, father, king, bull, etc.

Feminine Gender : It denotes the female nouns, e.g.,girl, mother, queen, cow, etc.

Common Gender : It expresses the male and female nouns both. Such as, student, doctor, cousin, frined, teacher, etc.

Neuter Gender : It refers to non-living things, e.g., ball, book, car, shirt, etc.

Number of Nouns

Read these rules for changing the number of the nouns :
RulesExamples
A plural noun is most commonly formed by adding -s to the existing noun.girl-girls, boy-boys
Nouns ending in -s, -ss, -x, -o, -ch, -sh, form their plurals by adding -es.bus-buses, class-classes, tax-taxes, buffalo-buffaloes, branch-branches, bush-bushes
Some nouns ending with -o only add -s in the plural formphoto-photos
Nouns ending with -y, with a consonant before it, take -i in place of -y and add -es in the plural form.baby-babies, city-cities
Nouns ending with -f and -fe change to -v and then add -es.knife-knives, thief-thieves
Some words ending in -f only add -s in the plural form.chief-chiefs, proof-proofs
Some nouns are changed to their plural forms by adding -en.ox-oxen
Some nouns chnage to the plural form by changing the vowel.man-men, foor-feet
In compound words, -s is added to the main word, in the plural form.mother-in-law-mothers in law, stepson-stepsons, passer-by-passers-by
Some nouns have the singular and plural alikedeer-deer, sheep-sheep, series-series, fish-fish
Some nouns are always in the plural because two parts form a pairpair of scissors, pair of spectacles

Pronouns

Pronouns

Pronoun words are used in place of nouns. They help avoid repeating the nouns.

Kinds of Pronoun
  • Personal Pronouns
  • Reflexive Pronouns
  • Demonstrative Pronouns
  • Interrogative Pronouns
  • Relative Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal Pronouns are pronouns that we use in place of names of persons, animals, places and things.

The pronouns I, me, we, us, you, he, she, it, him, her, they, them are Personal Pronouns.

Pronouns can act as subjects and objects in sentences. They also show belonging or ownership.

Cases of Personal Pronouns
Subjective CaseObjective CasePossessive Case
Imemine
youyouyours
he, she, ithim, her, ithis, hers
weusours
theythemtheirs
whowhomwhose

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns point out the nouns to which they refer.

This, that, these and those are Demonstrative Pronouns.

Read the demonstrative pronouns used to indicate objects that are close or far
Demonstrative pronounsDistance of the objectNumber of the objectExamples
thisclose to speaker/writersingularThis is your final score.
theseclose to speaker/writerpluralThese are delicious to eat.
thatfar from speaker/writersingularThat is my friend's house.
thosefar from speaker/writerpluralThose are my books.

Relative Pronouns

A relative pronoun refer back or relates to the noun mentioned before it.

Examples
  • The man who gave me this parcel was wearing a blue uniform.
  • I like watching films that have good music.
  • The girl whose book you took is waiting outside.
  • 'Who' and 'whom' are used for persons.
  • 'Which' is used for things and animals.
  • 'Whose' and 'that' are used for persons, things and animals.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns are used when the doer of an action also receives the action. In other words, the doer acts on itself.

Read this table to understand how personal pronouns change into reflexive pronouns:
PersonSingularPlural
PersonalReflexivePersonalReflexive
FirstIMyselfWeOurselves
SecondYouYourselfYouYourselves
ThirdHe
She
It
Himself
Herself
Itself
TheyThemselves

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns are pronouns that introduce questions.

They include the words who, whom, which, whose, what, etc.

Who and whom are used for persons only; which is used for both persons and things; what is used for some information only. Examples :

  • What are those black marks on your shirt?
  • Whom do you want to meet?
  • Whose is this newspaper?

Discussion about Artificial Intelligence

  Discussion about Artificial Intelligence Q.1. What is artificial intelligence? Q.2. Give a brief history of artificial intelligence? Q.3. ...